Monday, September 30, 2019

Estonian Air †Final Essay

Estonian Air is a regional airline carrier headquartered in Estonia in the Baltic region of Europe. The airline’s hub of operations is located in Estonia’s capital city of Tallinn at Tallinn Airport. This airport is the largest in the country. With the state government of Estonia owning a large equity percentage of the airline, Estonian Air is the national airline of the Country of Estonia. The Company currently operates a fleet of four aircraft providing flights to sixteen destinations throughout Europe. Within the airline industry, Estonian Air is classified as a regional carrier. Regional carriers have historically pursued business strategies of specializing on short-haul flights within a limited geographic region. Up until the early 2000’s, regional carriers’ competitive advantages were based on their ability to provide geographically focused route services to smaller, underserved markets where larger airlines had limited exposure. These types of regional carriers were historically able to charge higher ticket prices and were able to avoid price competition. Over the past decade, competition within the European airline industry has increased dramatically. This increase is the direct result of two major factors. The first contributing factor has been the deregulation of the airline industry due to the economic integration resulting from the formation of the European Union. The second factor is the emergence of a new type of business strategy being implemented by several airlines. These airlines are known as Low-Cost Carriers (â€Å"LCCs†). They focus on providing low-cost flights to their customers. This is accomplished, by (i) simplifying fleet designs (to reduce training and maintenance costs), (ii) providing one type of class seating and no other services (i.e. meals), (iii) providing direct point-to-point service, (iv) focusing on shorter routes, and (v) employing non-union workers to lower labor costs. The combination of deregulation and proliferation of LCCs, has directly affected smaller regional carriers who now face greater competition. Although many of these regional airlines are smaller and do not have the economies of scale to compete with the larger airline companies, many have adopted strategies of expanding their fleets and increasing the number of routes they service. While competition has been steady increasing, the economy and business of Estonian Air has experienced quality growth over the past several years. On the contrary, fuel prices have increased 32% over the past three years resulting in higher operating costs and decreasing overall profit. This was illustrated in 2006 when Estonian Air increased its overall number of operating flights and experienced a 12% increase in gross revenue. This resulted in escalating operating costs, most notably fuel costs, which triggered a net loss in 2006 of US$ 5 Million. With the uncertainty of the future economy in mind, Estonian Air must make key decisions to ensure the company will retain positive strategic direction and continue to experience financial growth. The Company’s internal analysis indicates the market will continue to grow 10% – 15% per year for the next several years. In attempts to take advantage of the predicted market increase, Estonian Air is in consideration of expanding its fleet and adding several destinations. This alteration would aid in getting ahead of competition, managing higher fuel costs, and creating economies of scale. While many of these decisions have yet to be answered, management has narrowed its choice of aircraft, if they proceed with expansion. The current options include the Boeing 737 Jet, the Bombardier Q400 Turboprop, and the Saab 340A. The Vice President of Operations, Rait Kalda and the Vice President of Finance, Andrus Aljas, are currently preparing a working financial model and a total cost of ownership (TCO) analysis to break down the different options listed above. These examinations will be presented to the Board of Directors during their next meeting. Mr. Aljas has informed Mr. Kalda of the underlying problem that the Board of Directors is divided on the growth projections for the airline. There are several members who believe the growth projections in the internal analysis are too high and that there may be certain economic headwinds nearby. If these projections are accurate, it would mean an overall economic recession. Expanding the fleet at the time of a major economic contraction could have decidedly negative consequences for Estonian Air. As such, this decision is of extreme importance to the company and will require elite deliberation. Scope of Work ART Consulting Group has been retained by Estonian Air to assist in the decision making process related to the possibility of the company’s fleet expansion. Our main focus will be assisting Mr. Aljas and Mr. Kalda in the formulation of decision-making model, as well as providing recommendations on facilitating healthy discussion leading to the adoption of an effective decision. Mr. Aljas affirmed that due to different opinions amongst the Board members, the management team should strive to ensure that judgment errors, bias ideas, and negative group dynamics do not negatively affect Estonian Air’s ability to make the best decision possible. In addition, the growing uncertainty of both internal and external variables should remain in the company’s consideration. Because of the request by Estonian Air’s management, we will briefly touch on TCO analysis, but primarily focus on decision-making. Strategy & SWOT Analysis Overview In order to better facilitate discussion about the internal and external environment facing Estonian Air, we have provided a brief SWOT analysis. This model provides an overview of the company’s leverages, constraints, vulnerabilities, and problems. Estonian Air’s key strategic goal, as stated in their annual report, is to â€Å"ensure sustainable and profitable growth through target markets, customer satisfaction, fleet renewal, and employee development.† -Estonian Air Annual Report Strengths * Recent Year’s Positive Results * Meeting Industry Standards * Enviable on-time record * Backing of Estonia Government * Lower Borrowing Costs| Weaknesses * Small Fleet * Increasing technical problems and O&M Costs leading to unscheduled downtime * Weakened Balance Sheet * No Economies of Scale| Opportunities * Internal Analysis indicates 10-15% Growth * New Routes| Threats * Economic Downturn * Rising Fuel Costs * Exchange Rate Volatility * Growing Competition| Based on the above analysis, it is clear why Estonian Air is ready to â€Å"implement a growth strategy and invest in the development of its fleet.† Given the opportunity to grow their market, challenged with their small fleet and increasing difficulty of sustaining the maintenance and technical issues of their older planes, it would seem obvious that fleet expansion would be a logical choice. Expanding the fleet would (i) decrease O&M expense, (ii) decrease fuel costs (by obtaining more fuel-efficient planes), (iii) increase economies of scale, and finally (iv) allow the company to expand its route offerings and compete more effectively against the company’s growing competition. In order to quantify a course of action, Mr. Aljas and Mr. Kalda are formulating a Total Cost of Ownership Model, as well as a detailed financial model to assist in deciding how best to proceed. With this said, we have identified several problem areas that should be addressed. Problem Identification The following section outlines the identification of the core problems facing the managers of Estonian Air with regards to this strategic decision. Key Decision with High Risk & Uncertainty The decision to expand the fleet or not to expand the fleet is extremely important. If the company expands and the growth projections are exaggerated, the result could have a seriously negative consequence on the company’s balance sheet. However, postponing expansion could allow competitors a first mover advantage into particular markets and result in increasing opportunity costs to Estonian Air. Two types of decisions that managers face are programmed and nonprogrammed decisions. Programmed decisions are those that are routine and simple. These do not take much contemplation and can be resolved by implementing a new policy. Nonprogrammed decisions, however, are those that are new, complex, and are not routine. The decision facing Estonian Air is observed to be a nonprogrammed decision; primarily because of the complexity of the financial modeling, the obligation of implementing a well thought out decision-making model. Because the decision involves uncertainty and prediction for future events, the decision will and should involve group input. Split Board – Judgment Errors & Bias Mr. Aljas stated to our consulting firm that the Board of Directors, and some members of management, believe that the internal growth projections are overstated. Because of the differences in opinions, we expect a lengthy and potentially heated discussion regarding the best course of action. The circumstances will lend themselves to creating opportunities for judgment errors, individual and group bias to inhibit Estonian Air from making the most effective decision possible. These types of judgment errors could include aspects of (i) groupthink, (ii) group polarization, (iii) anchoring, and (iv) escalation of commitment. Problem Analysis Examining Nature of Decision Models There are three types of decision models including (i) Rationality, (ii) Bounded Rationality, and (iii) the Garbage Can Model. In the figure below, we show the spectrum of decisions extending from pure rationality on the left and the illogical Garbage Can model on the right. Rationality, by definition, is used in situations where a step-by-step logical approach is used to pick the best alternative. In these situations, we assume to know or have at our disposal all necessary information to make an informed decision. On the other hand, we have the Garbage Can model, which states that decisions are random. In the middle, we find something closer to the type of decision facing Estonian Air, which is the suggestion that there are limits to how rational a decision-maker can be. This is known as Bounded Rationality. There are always instances where we are limited to having all the necessary information for the decision. In such cases, we often do not have the ability to understand the complexity of the problem completely. We are then forced to make a decision that is the most optimal. This is known as a decision that satisfices the problem at hand. Understanding the nature of bounded rationality will help Estonian Air understand the context of the decision they are forced with and assist in the formulation of the decision process. Creating the Decision Process – Evaluating Results Estonian Air must quickly develop a decision and define a clear approach to addressing the problem. The following diagram outlines the basic steps in the decision process: Estonian Air Decision Process Identify Problem:Do we believe growth projections? Do we expand fleet or not? Establish Objective:The objective is to make a strategic decision to maximize profit and gain market share. More specifically, we have been given a WACC hurdle rate of 11.5% to consider for investments. The difficulty in this decision is the fact that the Board of Directors is split on the projections of economic growth. Gather Data:We will aid in constructing a financial model and TCO for various options. The model should consist of two areas: operating assumptions and macro-economic assumptions. We suggest in working with the operations crew to get credible operating assumptions. We also recommend constructing a model that is capable of inputting various growth rates so that the model can be stress tested for contingency purposes. The model should list options with each alternative case having an upside, midside, and downside scenario. Evaluate Alternatives:Evaluate alternatives and contingencies Decide on Solution:Make appropriate decision Implement:Implementation of Decision Feedback:Evaluate Results Follow up:Revisit final decision after implementation to ensure company is following protocol. Adjust as needed. Based on the above process, we have constructed the following table showing the scenario case analysis in terms of return on capital. Upside Case:20% Growth Rate Midside Case:10% Growth Rate Downside Case:-15% Growth Rate (Economic Recession) Estonian Air Case Analysis All decisions must meet the company’s required WACC hurdle rate of 11.5%, regardless of case selection. In the upside illustration, scenarios 1 and 5 offer the highest return on capital. Both involve the larger Boeing 737. In the midside case, the maximum return on capital is gained through scenario 5 which involves the combination of the Boeing 737 and the Bombardier Q400. The decision has a lower rate of return, but does have a lower volatility then scenario 1, which has the highest volatility ranking. Finally, in the event of an economic recession, all of the scenarios result in negative returns, but one solution, no fleet expansion at all, results in the less severe decline. If management believes that the economy will go into a recession, then scenario 4 will be the best course of action. Having developed the alternatives, it is clear that the key factors are the projections for growth. Because some of the Board members have opposing views on these internal growth projections, we anticipate that the decision selection portion of the process will include a lengthy and heated discussion. This could lend itself to unhealthy and unstructured decisions. Judgment Errors, Bias, and Individual and Group Decision Making We have constructed a model that is as effective as can be given what we know about the type of decision that we face. We have also identified that the main areas of contention within the model and in the decision process. Groupthink Irving Janis identified groupthink as â€Å"a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment.† This concept describes the negative effects of group cohesion. When members of a group feel pressured into making a significant decision, groupthink often presents itself. Key group members may have influence over other members’ opinions and behaviors towards the decision-making process. Another viability for groupthink to occur is when a group consists of like-minded individuals. The similarities within the group will offer little room for an assortment of solutions. Diversity is important in the decision-making process because the most favorable option may be underlying and unapparent. Groupthink also occurs when members are forced to conclude a decision in a short time frame. This causes members to rush without seeking the most applicable possible number of alternatives. Pursuing outside help for decision-making is another option to decrease groupth ink. This may assist in decision-making because obtaining an outside member’s consolation may offer unbiased, helpful solutions. To prevent Estonian Air from falling into the defective concept of groupthink, we suggest that key decision-makers effectively listen and assess all options, while promoting synergy within the group before making a final decision. This may require mediators to be present when all alternatives are being evaluated. Another suggestion discussed in further detail later in the paper is to seek outside help. We suggest this because of the short time frame as well as the magnitude of the decision. Group Polarization Studies show that groups tend to make more extreme decisions than individuals would for the same predicament. This concept, known as group polarization, emerges from two notions, the social comparison approach, and the persuasive arguments view. The social comparison approach describes the idea that members in the group perceive their data to be more accurate and relevant than other members of the group. However, during the meeting, members realize their ideas are not what they originally perceived. The second notion, persuasive arguments view, details extreme decisions being made due to members of the group supporting other members’ preliminary thoughts of the subject. If not detected early, both explanations may cause radical movements with the decision-making process. To prevent Estonian Air from getting trapped into group polarization, we recommend for decision-makers to individually submit their best possible solutions before collaborating as a team. This will hopefully deplete the pressures of making disastrously extreme decisions. Bias #1 – Anchoring Often, when making a decision, groups or individuals will use what are known as heuristics. Heuristics are mental short cuts that help simplify complex decisions. One of the downsides to heuristics is that they can lead to judgment errors due to the bias and irrational logic. One of the heuristic traps that we perceive might affect Estonian Air is anchoring and adjustment. In this type of heuristic, initial information serves as an anchor, or starting point, to base future decisions. For example, with regards to Estonian Air, the past 3 years of growth and rising fuel prices may form the basis, or anchor, for which future predictions are based. Sometimes past performance is not necessarily indicative of future performance. Bias #2 – Escalation of Commitment In addition to anchoring, another bias or judgment error that could occur escalation of commitment. This occurs when there is an increased commitment to a course of action despite knowledge of contrary information. In this case, if Estonian Air has begun the mental preparation for fleet expansion and they firmly believe in their growth projections and continued positive outlook on the economy, there may be bias opinions to continue this course of action. We already know that the Board is concerned about the growth projections and possible economic contraction. If the managers are set on expansion, there may be a bias to continue despite warning signs about the economy. Management Recommendations In order to ensure that the company makes the most effective decision and avoids judgment errors and groupthink, we recommend that Estonian Air utilize one of the following techniques with regards to their discussion and debate regarding future growth projections. Technique Definition Benefit Brainstorming| Generate as many ideas as possible on a given subject| Could lead to greater creativity with regards to solutions – Promotes Creativity| Nominal Group Technique| Structured approach that focuses on generating alternatives and then choosing one| Good for generating alternatives – but decisions could still be influenced by groupthink or other judgment bias| Delphi Technique| Gathering judgments from experts| Very applicable to, Estonia – Seek outside 3rd Party experts on economics (i.e. investment banks, advisors, Economic development professionals) | Devil’s Advocacy| One person plays the role of critic to different points of view| Should help to prevent groupthink| Dialectical Inquiry| Debate between two opposing points| As there are two sides to the question at hand – this option could prove to be very helpful| In reviewing these different options, we recommend a combination of two techniques from above. We would advice Estonian Air to use the Delphi Technique, but notably by seeking advice from a 3rd Party expert. We suggest that Estonia pay for the service to dissuade unnecessary promoting of decision outcomes that directly benefit the person providing the advice. An example of this would be an investment bank advising on fleet expansion and offering advice to Estonian Air at no cost. This would be considered corruption in efforts to allow the investment bank to underwrite the securities and make a commission on the sale of the securities on the primary or secondary markets. We would also advise the Board of Directors to meet with management to perform a dialectal inquiry that strongly presents the position of both sides. We feel this would be advantageous because both sides would bring alternatives to the table and argue their reasoning. With this meeting, we would advise for a mediator to be present in the event that group polarization would need to be diminished. We feel that the combination of these two techniques, will aid Estonian Air in reaching an effective and satisfying decision. Conclusion Estonian Air faces a difficult and important strategic decision with regards to expand their fleet or not expand their fleet. What makes the decision difficult is uncertainty. We have identified the major variable in this decision as the validity of the internal growth projections, which are based off of assumptions regarding the overall health of the economy. We have formulated a systematic approach to the decision making process and have assisted the company in developing a detailed financial model to assist in this decision. We have recommended that Estonian Air focus on the issue of growth and have advised the management team and Board of Directors to engage in a healthy debate in order to reach an accurate decision. While doing this, we have identified that there may be several potential judgment errors and influencing bias, which might prevent Estonian Air from making the optimal decision. We believe that the use of one or more of the techniques outlined above could help to eli minate the probability of making a strategic error. Post Case Study Update on Estonian Air Following 2007, a major economic hit both the United States and Europe. Estonian Air had decided on a fleet expansion, as well as the addition of several new routes. The effects of the economic recession caused a massive drop in passengers and resulted in the insolvency of the airline. In 2010, the airline received a bailout from the Estonian government. The bailout effectively nationalized the airline further and wiped out nearly all of the private equity in the deal. In addition, a severe austerity plan was implemented that decreased the wages of pilots by over 30%. In the interim, Mr. Aljus became President of the airline around this time. Mr. Aljus resigned from his position in 2011. In 2012, the company experienced massive financial losses and had to lay off nearly half its staff. Through today, the economic troubles of the airline have continued. In March of 2013, another bailout was announced, along with the European Commission looking into previous bailouts as being illegal. The fleet was reduced from 13 to 10 aircrafts and is expected to decrease to 5 by 2015.

Best Buy Case Study Write Up Essay

1. How does Best Buy define customer centricity? The idea behind customer centricity was to be the customer’s smart friend and give a full solution. The sales people stand by the customers and try to find what they really need and what they want. The opposite of this would be product centricity. At this time the electronics were getting easier to use, their interaction required specific knowledge that only a fraction of the client base possessed. In this situation, the used to be advantage of best buy disappeared, and the company tested the first version of customer-centricity by setting up 12 laboratory stores and then rolling out tested concepts in 32 pilot stores. The test were successful very successful. Best buy changed its segments from products such as MP3, TV, or PC to customers like Barry. All these make customers more convenient to shop in the store. Compared to the other stores, Best Buy did not focus on brands but usage. The sales person never asked what do you want to buy, but rather ask what you want to do. In launching customer centricity, Anderson used an autocratic set of power tools and expected swift support from his top team to execute his vision. 2. Is Customer-Centricity the same as customer services? No, the customer-Centricity is not the same as customer service. The difference is that they can contour their sales and service pitch to each individual after they know which category that they fall into. They know from past company stastistics and knowledge about the different types and what their shopping style is like. Customer service is about trying to sell your existing products. The case states also that customer service may be in response to its competitors, and not its customers. Customer centricity mainly focuses on research of customers buying power, purchase preference and customer behavior. It is based on the research that Best Buy has gathered over time. From here, the company can redesign its products, and develop a new marketing strategy and give more suitable service. 3. How does it relate to Consumer behavior? Chapter 10 touches upon things that could be related to consumer behavior. In store decision making talks about spontaneous shopping which is unplanned buying and impulse buying. Point of purchase stimuli is product display or demonstration that draws attention. The salesperson also can create exchange process. This involves commercial friendships. This is basically what customer centricity is about, forming commercial friendships. Chapter 10 also talks post purchase satisfaction which is the overall feeling about a product after someone has purchased it. Chapter 13 discusses income and social class and this is directly correlated to the customer centricity model. The model puts people in different classes. They were Jill, Barry, angles and devils. Chapter 13 goes into detail and talks about how people can be put in classes based on income, education, age, religion, gender, just like Best Buy put these four people into classes to segment them. Best Buy, in essence, used consumer behavior to classify these people. 4. Finally, do you agree with this new strategy for Best Buy? What is its impact on the financial performance? We think that it was a good idea for Best Buy to implement this. It has worked financially and it seemed to have made the company more profitable. From looking at the financials from 2002 to 2004, it appears as though the strategy seems to be working. Best Buy remains at the top of the list for Consumer electronics companies in the United States. Its revenue was 49.7 billion dollars in 2010, which is 18% of North American market share. In the last 5 years, it keeps 25% of gross profit growth. It seemed like it was known that Wal Mart would catch Best Buy as the number one store at that time, but I think this was because of different reasons, like its building of so many new stores and supply chain capability.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

The edocrine system

The endocrine system The endocrine system is a collection of ductless glands which are positioned through the whole body. The endocrine glands pass their secretions of hormones directly into the blood stream so that they are always adjacent to blood vessels. Hormones are chemicals in the body produced and secreted in the body that regulate the function of a particular tissue or organ (Bing dictionary). These chemical messengers transfer information from one set of cells to another.Despite many chemicals being transmitted and circulated around the body via the bloodstream, each one only acts n the cells that are genetically programmed to receive and respond to its message. Hormone levels can be influenced by many factors including stress, infection and changes in the balance of fluids within the body. A gland is a group of cells that produce and secrete chemicals (http://kidshealth. org/parent/general/body_basics/ endocrine. html). A gland will select and eliminate waste materials fro m the blood, then process it and secrete the end product for use at another location in the body.Endocrine glands release more than 20 major hormones straight into the loodstream and from here they can be transported to the cells in other parts of the body. There are many major glands that make up the endocrine system and these include the: hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pineal body and the reproductive glands (testes for males and ovaries for females). The pancreas is also involved in secreting hormones which are involved with the maintaining of blood sugar levels within the body.The pancreas is also associated with the digestive system as it produced hydrolytic enzymes which aid with digestion. Neuro- endocrine system The nervous and endocrine systems control all the biological processes within the body and they can almost control one another. The nervous system can stimulate or inhibit the release of certain hormones while the endocrine system can promot e of inhibit nerve impulses. Hypothalamus The hypothalamus is found in the lower part of the brain and is a collection of particular cells.It has key links with the nervous system and the endocrine system and has an important role in secreting hormones. The nerve cells in the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland by producing certain chemicals that can timulate or supress hormone secretions from the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is moderately small and is located at the base of the brain beneath the produced hormones that control other endocrine glands within the body. The hypothalamus can convey information sensed by the brain to the pituitary gland to make any changes that could be influenced by factors like emotions and seasonal changes.The pituitary Gland The pituitary gland is divided into 2 sections: Anterior lobe This regulates the activity of the thyroid, adrenals, and reproductive glands. It also roduces growth hormone which stimulates the growth of bone and other body tissues. It also produces prolactin which stimulates mammary gland growth and activates milk production in females. Thyrotropin is another hormone produced and this stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. Corticotrophin is produced which causes the adrenal glands to produce certain hormones.Follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH) is also produced and affects ovaries in females and stimulates the development of oocytes. It also affects the testes of males and stimulates the production of sperm. Luteinizing hormone (LH) affects the ovaries in females and stimulates ovulation, the formation of the corpus luteum and results in secretion of oestrogen and progesterone. It affects the testes of males and stimulates the production of testosterone. The pituitary gland also secretes endorphins. These are chemicals that act on the nervous system and allow us to reduce our sensitivity to pain.It also triggers the reproductive organs to release sex hormones such as testostero ne in males, and estradiol and progesterone in females which play a part in the menstruation cycle. Posterior lobe This releases antidiuretic hormone and this encourages reabsorption of water by the kidneys. The posterior lobe also produces the hormone called oxytocin and this helps induce labour and produces milk in the mammary glands of females. Another hormone produced in the posterior lobe is Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) and this helps with the darkening of the skin. Hull. R, Anatomy & Physiology for Beauty and Complementary Therapies, the Write Idea Ltd, 2009) Thyroid The thyroid is positioned in the lower region of the neck at the front and it produces a hormone called thyroxine. This is an amino acid derivative and increases the metabolic rate and heart rate. It also promotes growth within the body. Another development also, and helps with body temperature and plays a role in metabolism. Calcitonin is another hormone formed which targets bones and lowers the level of calcium in the blood.The production and release of these thyroid hormones is controlled by Thyrotropin and this is secreted by the pituitary gland. If a person has more thyroid hormones circulating in the blood stream, the chemical reactions within the body will occur much quicker. Parathyroids There are 4 small glands that are attached to the thyroid called the parathyroids. These release a hormone called parathyroid hormone and this adjusts the level of calcium in the blood with the help of calcitonin, which is also formed in the thyroid. (http://kidshealth. rg/teen/your_body/body_basics/endocrine. html). It also decreases the level of phosphate in the blood and promotes the formation of calcitriol by the kidneys. Thymus The thymus gland plays an important role in the immune system and secretes numerous hormones. One of these is thymosin and this promotes the growth of T- Cells which are a type of white blood cell. (Hull. R, Anatomy & Physiology for Beauty and Complementary Therap ies, the Write Idea Ltd, 2009). Adrenal Glands The adrenal glands are situated above each kidney and release many hormones that are important in the body.The adrenal glands are divided into 2 sections and each one has a particular function: Adrenal cortex The adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones that are essential in the body. These hormones are grouped into mineralcorticoids, glucocorticoids and sex hormones. This produces corticosteroids that regulate water and salt balance in the body. They also play a role in the bodys response to stress and help maintain metabolism. The adrenal glands also produce mineralcorticoids (mainly aldosterone) and this acts on the kidneys.It regulates the mineral content of the blood by increasing blood levels of sodium and water, it also decreases blood levels of potassium. Sex hormones called androgens and oestrogens are also produced in the adrenal cortex and these have a small contribution to sex drive and libido. The adrenal medulla in innerva ted by neurones of the sympathetic branch of the ANS and can quickly release hormones called catecholamines. One example of this is epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) and this produces many effects which are related to short-term stress response.It is also responsible for the â€Å"fght or flight† response which is triggered during times of stress. This increases blood pressure and heart rate (from own personal notes). Another hormone called norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline) plays a role in the body's response to stress. It decreases the rate of digestion and stimulates cellular metabolism. Pineal Gland The pineal gland is located in the middle of the brain and it secretes a hormone alled melatonin and this regulates sleep patterns in the body.Reproductive glands In males the reproductive gland is the testes. It produces a hormone called testosterone which regulates the development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics. In females the reproductive gl and is the ovaries. A hormone produces is estradiol which regulates the development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics. Another hormone produced is progesterone and this prepares the uterus for pregnancy and is involved in the regulation of the menstrual cycle in females. PancreasThe pancreas is also involved in secreting hormones around the body and also links with the digestive system as it secretes digestive and hydrolytic enzymes. The pancreas produces 3 hormones. Insulin: this is secreted from the beta-cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas and is secreted in reply to a raised blood glucose concentration. The effect of insulin is that is lowers blood glucose concentration to normal levels. The modes of action for this are that it stimulates the absorption of glucose from the blood by the muscle fibres, liver cells and adipose cells.

Friday, September 27, 2019

Oracle vs. Google Lawsuit (Android and Java) Research Paper

Oracle vs. Google Lawsuit (Android and Java) - Research Paper Example Google’s Android infringes Oracle America’s copyrights in Java and Google is not licensed to do so. The seven patented technologies in question are: 6,125,447 (Protection Domains To Provide Security in a Computer System); 6, 192,476 (Controlling Access to Resource); 5,966,702 (Method and Apparatus for Preloading of Classes Through Memory Space Cloning of a Master Runtime System Process; RE38,104 (Method And Apparatus For Resolving Data References In Generate Code - A reissued patent; the original number was 5,367,685); 6,910,205 (Interpreting Functions Utilizing A Hybrid Of Virtual And Native Machine Instructions); and, 6,061,520 (Method And System for Performing Static Initialization) (EndSoft Patents 2012). The Java technology was developed by Sun Microsystems now called Oracle America, after its acquisition by Oracle. The deal, valued at $7.4 billion, strengthened Oracle’s objective to out-consolidate its rivals, which was already buoyed by previous acquisitio n of several large companies (Shankland 2010). Because of this, Oracle became a hardware company as well, with an integrated product being pitched to the customers as a combination of hardware and software solution. Android is a Google product, developed in its move to expand in the mobile computing market. It was originally created by Android Inc., which Google bought in 2005. Today, Android is being maintained and developed by the Open Handset Alliance, which is a consortium of 86 hardware, software and telecommunications organizations led by Google. Legal Issues Oracle’s claims of code infringement had been modified in October 2010, which further specified its complaint against Android. In its amended claim filed before the court, Oracle alleged that Google flagship operating system is using or copying Java technologies in its class libraries and documentation, further stressing that approximately one-third of Android’s API packages are â€Å"derivative† of t he Java API packages, including examples of code that aim to prove its point (Lopez-Tarruella, 2012, 279). For Google’s alleged copyright and patent infringement, Oracle originally asked for over $2.4 billion in order to compensate for the damages, which, of course, Google countered as inflated (Latif 2012). Oracle has revised this figure as it amended its complaints several times. Today, it stands at $168 million. Google still think the figures as baseless. In a legal strategy designed to fend off attacks or at least protect its Android ecosystem from lawsuits such as that lodged by Oracle, Google has acquired Motorola Mobility its trove of patented mobile and computing technologies, in addition to the thousands acquired from IBP Patents. The rationale for this move is simple. With a comprehensive range of important mobile and future mobile technologies, Google is in a better position to protect the companies that use Android because it could threaten Oracle with counter lic ense suits. Also, Google could refuse to license technologies to companies such as Microsoft, Nokia and perhaps Oracle if it starts its own mobile computing program in the future. Finally, Google – through its newly acquired patents - could enter into cross-licensing deals with these companies in exchange for dropping the lawsuits or being amenable

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Jasper Johns Target with Plaster Casts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Jasper Johns Target with Plaster Casts - Essay Example The essay "Jasper Johns’ Target with Plaster Casts" explores the Target with Plaster Casts, work of Jasper Johns. Unlike Pollock and Rosenberg, Johns’ art makes use of non-introspective style. Non-introspective style finds no significance in the art itself but rather finds its meaning on the art object or the real object within the art. Johns believed that abstract expressionism void the real meaning from the art objects and thus preferred to express his work through Dadaism—the integration of both the medium and the visual art to understand its meaning. Hence, it challenges the viewers to redefine the stereotypical representation of the arts and look at it in a more inquisitive light. The influence of Dadaism to Johns’ work is evident on his Target with Plaster Casts. Though Johns made use of primary colors—red, black, and yellow to color his target; the base was done in layers. The colors he used were strong and very straight forward. Looking at t he art, one might find no abstract meaning but language through the use of primary colors. Since artists make use of color, shape, medium, or environment to covey separate meaning, combining each element morphs the art to represent a new meaning that viewers would have to decipher. In this case, Johns made us of the technique and color to convey meaning: the predominant red color depicts violence; black is representative of both calm and control; while yellow symbolizes jealousy. The cyclic pattern of black and yellow represent human’s capacity for emotion.

U.S. Constitution In 1787 and Today Research Paper

U.S. Constitution In 1787 and Today - Research Paper Example In the United States, the senate voted for the change of rules that enabled the republican to prevent the president Barack Obama nominees for the top administrative posts (Abegg, 2013 p. 219). The senators approved the partisan measures that were to ban the filibuster so as to prevent the nominated personnel from being confirmed (Ford, 2013, p. 214). Harry Reid in his speech about supporting the measure, he accused the Republicans of preventing the nominees in the pursuit of unrelated legislative expectations or goal. Reid argued that the republicans used the filibuster laws weapon for preventing president Obama from choosing and appointing an executive representative and also, appointing the judges. The blocking of the filibuster law does seem constitutionally because, on the other hand, the filibuster acted as the weapon barrier to prevent the president from passing many bills, but they had a right to their opinion (Steffen, p. 202). After the law was blocked, the senator’s power was deducted from the senate to the president. The president was enacted with so much power than before the bill was changed in 2013. This law was mostly used by the republicans more tha n three times in November to block president Obama from confirming votes on the judges nominated to fill the vacancies on the United States for the Washington DC (The Guardian). Reid also argued that the Republicans objected the bills not because they do not have the qualifications, but just because they wanted just to undermine the government, they were elected to work for (Kenneth, 2013, p. 129). Senator Dan Coates reacted by saying he change of the rule was an idea of weakening the founding fathers of the democracy, and he said it was yet another power grabbing from the republicans. Senator Kelly Ayotte reacted to the rule by saying that the grab of the power is so much disappointing to all the republicans in the United State government, she said

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Corporate strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Corporate strategy - Essay Example It is irrefutable that the brewing industry and its market in UK have significantly changed over the years. It should be noted that most of the common assumptions and preconceptions of manufacturers about their distribution channels and consumer preferences are now obsolete. Thus, Coors Brewers Ltd. (Coors) needs to institute a change of strategic directions in order to account for these important developments and trends. This report generally aims to identify the various future strategic options for Coors. The first section will conduct an environmental scanning which will examine the different changes in the market of the business organisation. Secondly, this report will briefly outline its recommendations on how Coors can further enhance its performance by using its strengths and core competence to take advantage of the opportunities in the UK market. These will be conducted through the use of strategic management tools specifically the Ansoff Matrix. The market for alcoholic drinks is a very important sector in the UK market. It should be noted that the brewery sector generates more revenue than the other large industries like clothing, motor vehicles, tobacco, and confectionary. However, there has been a decreasing trend in alcohol consumption within UK households. It also noted that the traditional beer consumption in public houses is now overshadowed by the increasing consumer preference to consume brewed products at home as this is perceived to be more socially acceptable. The major trends in the UK brewing industry are identified as follows: â€Å"there is a growing female and mixed group influence; going to a public house is a leisure activity; consumption is often driven by occasion and events in both on-and off-trade; premium beers are becoming an important sector; there is wide choice of outlets; and there is a wide choice of brands.† In addition, it should

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Female genital mutilation and the practice of midwifery Dissertation

Female genital mutilation and the practice of midwifery - Dissertation Example The practices of FGM seem to be barbaric and cruel to Western society and in societies that hold such practices are done with the belief that there is a benefit to stealing the sexual arousal mechanisms from women in order to make them less carnal and more proper. The difficulty comes in trying to honour cultures for their beliefs while motivating them to change those beliefs because of false and dangerous consequences where female sex organs are concerned. Midwifery requires the acceptance of beliefs in concert with the application of good medical and traditional knowledge where childbirth is concerned. Consulting and caring for women who have had FGM requires sensitivity to the cultural beliefs with a firm understanding of how such procedures affect women in reference to their procreative lives. Psychological and medical knowledge is necessary to treat women with both respect and dignity despite any converse beliefs on the subject. While ideally it would be beneficial to abolish th e act of FGM, at this point in time it is still a potential problem that might arise when caring from patients from certain cultures or who come from a history of traumatic circumstances that ended in FGM. The following research proposal will explore the potential for a project in which the subject of FGM is examined through victims of the procedures, through the medical consequences that midwives face when dealing with patients who are victims of FGM, and through examining the balance between the victimisation of women and the cultural belief systems that must be honoured and respected while finding ways to deal with the consequences and offer reparative solutions where possible. 1.2 Background Female genital mutilation, also known as... From this research it is clear that female genital mutilation, also known as female genital cutting and female circumcision, has been defined by the World Health Organisation as â€Å"all procedures that involve the partial or total removal of female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons†. Unlike male circumcision, there are no health benefits to female circumcision and often contribute to urination difficulties or difficulty in childbirth later in life. The procedure most often will occur between the ages of birth and 15 and is considered a violation against women by world organisations across agencies. There are an estimated 100 to 140 million women who live with the consequences of the procedure with 92 million living on the African continent. There are four major types of FGM. These types are as follows: †¢ Clitoridectomy: partial or total removal of the clitoris (a small, sensitive and erectile part of the female genitals) and, in very rare cases, only the prepuce (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoris). †¢ Excision: partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora, with or without excision of the labia majora (the labia are "the lips" that surround the vagina). †¢ Infibulation: narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal. The seal is formed by cutting and repositioning the inner, or outer, labia, with or without removal of the clitoris. †¢ Other: all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, e.g. pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterizing the genital area.

Monday, September 23, 2019

Performance Evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Performance Evaluation - Essay Example This is one important aspect which the current rating scale does not consider. Another point of concern is that the ratings given by supervisors may be biased. A person may be an excellent worker but may have differences with the supervisor. This would result in him received a bad feedback despite displaying excellent end – results in work. Another point of concern is that people may be work shirkers and at the same time develop cordial relationships with colleagues and bosses. This appraisal system will not judge the person on the skills performed and he will still receive good rankings. On the other hand, a good worker who is unable to please colleagues and bosses may receive poor rankings. This will lead to frustration and people may even leave the organization in future. Performance of an employee can be evaluated by following some common criteria. In order to assess performance, a set objective must be given to each employee at the start of the year. Depending on the achi evement of both short – term and long – term goals, the performance of an employee can be judged. Some of the most common criteria for juding the performance evaluation of an employee are as follows: 1. Skill and expertise in performing a task – One of the most common criteria is the skill and expertise shown in performing a task. This may involve critical issues like problem solving and decision making skills. Meeting deadlines and meeting up with the quality and service standards is also included in this. 2. Behavioural aspects – the behavioural aspects of an employee should also be taken into consideration while judging the performance of an employee. Cordial attitude and good rapport with staff. A leader should encourage the followers to perform a task in a proper way, assumes responsibility for finishing a task and is accountable for the losses made due to his or her decisions. Keeping things organized and maintaining good relationships with subordin ates is also a common criterion for performance evaluation. 3. Verbal feedback of the superior is also an important criteria for performance evaluation. There should be a face – to – face interaction between the superior and subordinates in which the superior suggests areas of improvement and also rates the subordinate on his or her performance. 4. Performance evaluation criteria must not be biased and should be impartial and fair. The supervisor should try to judge the subordinate depending on the work performed and the behavioural traits shown towards a work. He or she should not give wrong ratings due to individual differences. The current organization does not take into account the performance of the engineer. Here the supervisor found that the current performance evaluation was indeed biased as it did not take into consideration the positive traits that the engineer displayed in matching deadlines and attaining a certain task to perfection. Hence the current perfo rmance evaluation systems need to be altered as it does not consider all of the above mentioned common criteria to evaluate the performance of an employee. All in all, performance evaluation should be a judicious mix of qualitative and quantitative aspects displayed by an employee in his work place. (Weiss, Brennan, Thomas, Kirlik & Miller, 2009). The feedback method which entails taking into consideration the opinions given by superiors, peers and subordinates in the performance appraisal of an employee is known a 360 degree

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Term Paper for Political Science Essay Example for Free

Term Paper for Political Science Essay The study of the state, government, and politics. The idea that the study of politics should be ‘scientific’ has excited controversy for centuries. What is at stake is the nature of our political knowledge, but the content of the argument has varied enormously. For example, 1741 when Hume published his essay, ‘That Politics May Be Reduced to a Science’, his concerns were very different from those of people who have sought to reduce politics to a science in the twentieth century. Although concerned to some degree to imitate the paradigm of Newtonian physics, Humes main objective was to show that some constitutions necessarily worked better than others and that politics was not just a question of personalities. Thus one of his main targets was the famous couplet in Alexander Popes Essay on Man: ‘For forms of government let fools contest,? |? Whateer is best administerd is best. ’ B. The Problem In 1968, the eminent political scientist David Easton wrote: Political Science in mid-twentieth century is a discipline in search of its identity. Through the efforts to solve this identity crisis it has begun to show evidence of emerging as an autonomous and independent discipline with a systematic structure of its own. However, the search for identity has been characteristic of political science from its inception on the American scene. Initially, the discipline was confronted with the task of demarcating its intellectual boundaries and severing its organizational ties from other academic fields, particularly history. Subsequently, debate arose over goals, methods, and appropriate subject matter as political scientists tried to resolve the often conflicting objectives of its four main scholarly traditions: (1) legalism, or constitutionalism; (2) activism and reform; (3) philosophy, or the history of political ideas; and (4) science. By the late twentieth century, the discipline had evolved through four periods outlined by Albert Somit and Joseph Tanenhaus in their informative work The Development of American Political Science: From Burgess to Behavioralism (1967). The four periods are the formative (1880–1903), the emergent (1903–1921), the middle years (1921–1945), and disciplinary maturity (1945–1990). It follows from this Kantian conception of the basis of science that there can only be one science, which is physics. This science applies just as much to people, who are physical beings, as it does to asteroids: like the theistic God, Kantian physics is unique or it is not itself. Biology, chemistry, engineering et al. re forms of physics, related and reducible to the fundamental constituents of the universe. The social studies are not, according to critics of political science, and become merely narrow and sterile if they attempt to ape the methods and assumptions of the natural sciences. The understanding we seek of human beings must appreciate their individual uniqueness and freedom of will; understanding people is based on our ability to see events from their point of view, the kind of insight that Weber called verstehen. In short, the distinction between science and non-science, in its most significant sense, is a distinction between the natural sciences and the humanities; the two are fundamentally different and politics is a human discipline. However, there are a number of objections to this harsh dichotomy between politics and science. Semantically, it might be said, this account reads too much into the concept of science which, etymologically, indicates only a concern with knowledge in virtually any sense. Wissenschaft in German, scienza in Italian, and science in French do not raise the profound philosophical questions which have been attached to the English word science. There are also many contemporary philosophers who seek to undermine the scientific nature of natural science. Inspired, particularly, by Thomas Kuhns The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) they argue that science itself is not determined by the absolute requirements of its discourse, but is structured by the societies in which it operates. Thus real physics is more like politics than it is like the Kantian ideal of physics, and it has no more claim to be a science than has politics. B . What are the four main scholarly traditions of Political science? C. What is legalism? D. What is constitutionalism? E. What is activism and reform? F. What is philosophy? G. The history of political ideas? H. Science C. Statement of the Problem (1) Legalism, or constitutionalism; (2) Activism and reform; (3) Philosophy, or the history of political ideas; and (4) Science. Legalism, Legalism is a political philosophy that does not address higher questions pertaining to the nature and purpose of existence. It is concerned with the most effective way of governing society. The legalist tradition derives from the principle that the best way to control human behaviour is through written law rather than through ritual, custom or ethics. The two principal sources of Legalist doctrine were the Book of Lord Shang and the Han Fei-tzu. The Book of Lord Shang teaches that laws are designed to maintain the stability of the state from the people, who are innately selfish and ignorant. There is no such thing as objective goodness or virtue; it is obedience that is of paramount importance. The Han Fei-tzu advocates a system of laws that enable the ruler to govern efficiently and even ruthlessly. Text books apart from law books are useless, and rival philosophies such as Moism and Confucianism are dismissed as vermin. The ruler is to conduct himself with great shrewdness, keeping his ministers and family at a distance and not revealing his intentions. Strong penalties should deter people from committing crime. History The origins of Legalist thought are unclear. Some would date it as far back as the teaching of the 7th century BCE statesman Kuan Chung (d. 645 BCE), prime minister of the state of Chi, whose teachings are supposed to be represented by the Kuan-tzu. Other figures associated with an early form of legalism are Shang Yang (d. 338 BCE), the putative author of The Book of Lord Shang, and Shen Pu-hai (d. 337 BCE). Shang Yang was particularly important for the development of legalism since it was he who served as governor of the state of Chin and strengthened it to the extent that it was able to unify China in the following century. It was, however, Han Fei-tzu (d. 33 BCE) who systematised the various strands of Legalism in his work The Han Fei-tzu. Han Fei-tzu had been taught by the Confucianist Hsun-tzu, whose philosophy claimed that people were basically evil but could be guided towards goodness. Han Fei-tzu adopted and developed Hsun-tzus negative pessimistic attitude towards human nature by teaching that people were so bad that t hey needed to be controlled by strong government and strict laws. This principle was put into practice by the Chin dynasty, which on unifying China in 221 BCE, destroyed the feudal system and placed the country under a single monarch. Under the Chin dynasty land was privatised, a uniform law code was established, and weights, measures and currency were standardised. Confucianism was severely persecuted; hundreds of Confucian scholars were killed and virtually all Confucian texts were destroyed. The two most powerful figures in the Ching dynasty were Chin Shih Huang Ti (d. 210 BCE), the first emperor, and the prime minister, Li Ssu (d. 208 BCE). The death of Li Ssu created a power vacuum which led to peasant uprisings and rebellions that broke out all over the country. In 207 BCE the Chin dynasty was overthrown and replaced by the Han dynasty, which favoured Confucianism. The viciousness of the Chin dynasty served to discredit Legalism. In spite of this legalism left its heritage in the form of a strongly centralised political system that would define Chinese government up until the present day and influence despotic Chinese rulers. When, for example, in 1973 Mao Tse Tung launched a campaign against his political opponents he identified himself with the first Chin emperor. Activism and reform Activism onsists of intentional efforts to promote, impede or direct social, political, economic, or environmental change. Activism can take a wide range of forms from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, political campaigning, economic activism such as boycotts or preferentially patronizing businesses, rallies, street marches, strikes, sit-ins, and hunger strikes. Activists can function in roles as public officials, as in judicial activism. Arthur Schlesinger Jr. introduced the term judicial activism in a January 1947 Fortune magazine article titled The Supreme Court: 1947. Philosophy s the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. The word philosophy comes from the Greek (philosophia), which literally means love of wisdom. Science (from Latin scientia, meaning knowledge) is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. In an older and closely related meaning (found, for example, in Aristotle), science refers to the body of reliable knowledge itself, of the type that can be logically and rationally explained (see History and philosophy below). Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy. In the early modern era the words science and philosophy were sometimes used interchangeably in the English language. By the 17th century, natural philosophy (which is today called natural science) was considered a separate branch of philosophy. However, science continued to be used in a broad sense denoting reliable knowledge about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as library science or political science. In modern use, science more often refers to a way of pursuing knowledge, not only the knowledge itself. It is often treated as synonymous with ‘natural and physical science’, and thus restricted to those branches of study that relate to the phenomena of the material universe and their laws, sometimes with implied exclusion of pure mathematics. This is now the dominant sense in ordinary use. D. Importance of the Study While both behaviorism and positive political theory exemplify the commitment to scientific rigor hoped for by Charles Merriam, the Cold War development of area studies had a less direct relationship to its predecessors. Prior to World War II, Americans had been inwardly focused; during this earlier era, comparative politics signified contrasting European parliamentary-style democracy with the American presidential model. However, with the rise of Adolf Hitlers Germany and Joseph Stalins Soviet Union in the 1930s and 1940s, it became evident that democracy needed to be assessed in comparison to fascism and totalitarianism. As the world broke into the two camps of Eastern communism and Western democracy in the 1950s and 1960s, and American political leaders required detailed knowledge of Eastern bloc nations and of Southeast Asia, political science departments and specialized institutes responded to this need. These undertakings were generously funded by the National Defense Education Act (NDEA); from 1958 to 1973 the NDEA Title IV provided $68. 5 million to the approximately 100 language and area centers. By 1973, these centers had produced 35,500 B. A. s, 14,700 M. A. s, and over 5,000 Ph. D. s. Area studies focused on questions of modernization and industrialization and strove to understand the differing developmental logic of non-Western cultures; they embraced diverse methods for understanding native languages and native cultures and remained skeptical of approaches to comparative politics adopting universalizing assumptions. Lucian W. Pye, Robert E. Ward, and Samuel P. Huntington championed the approach, with Huntingtons Clash of Civilizations (1996) epitomizing the perspective afforded by the field. E. Definition of Terms Legalism, Legalism is a political philosophy that does not address higher questions pertaining to the nature and purpose of existence. It is concerned with the most effective way of governing society. The legalist tradition derives from the principle that the best way to control human behaviour is through written law rather than through ritual, custom or ethics. The two principal sources of Legalist doctrine were the Book of Lord Shang and the Han Fei-tzu. The Book of Lord Shang teaches that laws are designed to maintain the stability of the state from the people, who are innately selfish and ignorant. There is no such thing as objective goodness or virtue; it is obedience that is of paramount importance. The Han Fei-tzu advocates a system of laws that enable the ruler to govern efficiently and even ruthlessly. Text books apart from law books are useless, and rival philosophies such as Moism and Confucianism are dismissed as vermin. The ruler is to conduct himself with great shrewdness, keeping his ministers and family at a distance and not revealing his intentions. Strong penalties should deter people from committing crime. Activism and reform Activism onsists of intentional efforts to promote, impede or direct social, political, economic, or environmental change. Activism can take a wide range of forms from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, political campaigning, economic activism such as boycotts or preferentially patronizing businesses, rallies, street marches, strikes, sit-ins, and hunger strikes. Activists can function in roles as public officials, as in judicial activism. Arthur Schlesinger Jr. introduced the term judicial activism in a January 1947 Fortune magazine article titled The Supreme Court: 1947. Philosophy s the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. The word philosophy comes from the Greek (philosophia), which literally means love of wisdom. Science (from Latin scientia, meaning knowledge) is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of te stable explanations and predictions about the universe. In an older and closely related meaning (found, for example, in Aristotle), science refers to the body of reliable knowledge itself, of the type that can be logically and rationally explained (see History and philosophy below). Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy. In the early modern era the words science and philosophy were sometimes used interchangeably in the English language. By the 17th century, natural philosophy (which is today called natural science) was considered a separate branch of philosophy. However, science continued to be used in a broad sense denoting reliable knowledge about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as library science or political science. In modern use, science more often refers to a way of pursuing knowledge, not only the knowledge itself. It is often treated as synonymous with ‘natural and physical science’, and thus restricted to those branches of study that relate to the phenomena of the material universe and their laws, sometimes with implied exclusion of pure mathematics. This is now the dominant sense in ordinary use. F. Review of the Related Study In the 1990s, disciplinary divisions existed over the efficacy and merits of the rational choice approach to politics, with many American political science departments divided into camps for and against. In leading centers for rational choice, including Rochester, Carnegie Mellon, California Institute of Technology, and George Washington, as many as half of the faculty adopted this method of study. Disciplinary controversy culminated in the publication of Donald P. Green and Ian Shapiros Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory (1994), and the responding issue of Critical Review (winter-spring 1995). Whereas the future of this disciplinary strife remains unclear, it is clear that the rational choice theory has an ascendant position across the social sciences and in the spheres of business, law, and public policy. American political science continues to question its identity, and to reflect on appropriate research methodology; methodological pluralism continues to reign. The fields continued self-examination reflects three independent axes. One embodies the two extremes of particular and localized studies versus universalizing analyses; a second is defined by the extremes of considering either groups or individuals as the key to analysis; and a third is represented by the belief that a normative stance is unavoidable at one extreme, and by a firm commitment to the possibility of objectivity at the other extreme. In the midst of the numerous topics and methods structuring political science, one certainty is that it is no longer possible for a single individual to master the entire field. G. Summary he study of government and political processes, institutions, and behavior. Government and politics have been studied and commented on since the time of the ancient Greeks. However, it is only with the general systematization of the social sciences in the last 100 years that political science has emerged as a separate definable area of study. Political science is commonly divided into a number of subfields, the most prominent being political theory, national government, comparative government, international relations, and special areas shared with other social sciences such as sociology, psychology, and economics. In practice, these subfields overlap. Political theory encompasses the following related areas: the study of the history of political thought; the examination of questions of justice and morality in the context of the relationships between individuals, society, and government; and the formulation of conceptual approaches and models in order to understand more fully political and governmental processes. The study of national government focuses on the political system of the researchers particular country, including the legal and constitutional arrangements and institutions; the interaction of various levels of government, other social and political groups, and the individual; and proposals for improving governmental structure and policy. Comparative government covers many of the same subjects but from the perspective of parallel political behavior in several countries, regions, or time periods. International relations deals both with the more traditional areas of study, such as international law, diplomacy, political economy, international organizations, and other forms of contact between nation states, and with the development of general, scientific models of international political systems. None of the political science subfields can be clearly separated. All of them, for example, deal with questions closely associated with political theory. Valuable and sophisticated discussions of almost all the areas of political science, including the areas now generally classified under such titles as political sociology, can be found throughout intellectual history as far back as Plato and Aristotle. Through the centuries, the questions of political science have been discussed in contexts varying with the changing perspectives of the time. During the Middle Ages, for example, the major concerns revolved around the problem of where the state stood in relation to man and his God. Karl Marx, on the other hand, viewed political questions in the context of societys economic structure. Modern political science stresses the importance of using political concepts and models that are subject to empirical validation and that may be employed in solving practical political problems. H. Conclusion and recommendation This research is all about the study of the state, government, and politics. The idea that the study of politics should be ‘scientific’ has excited controversy for centuries. What is at stake is the nature of our political knowledge, but the content of the argument has varied enormously.

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Pre-match competitive anxiety

Pre-match competitive anxiety Pattern of Pre-Match Competitive Anxiety in Elite Male Rugby Union Players. 1. Introduction Significant progress into the understanding of anxiety in sport has been made in recent years with the aid of research by such researchers at Burton (1988), Gould et al. (1987) and Martens and Gill (1976). In turn this has enabled sport psychologists to gain a deeper understanding into what causes competitive anxiety and the way in which athletes cope with it (Jarvis, 2006). The ability to cope with anxiety in all sports is essential as it could make the difference between winning and losing a competition. 1.1 Identifying the Problem There is a lack of research into the effects of anxiety on sporting performance, especially in male rugby. In team sports it is particularly important to breakdown all aspects of the performance. The key issues researched in this paper are somatic and cognitive anxiety. From research it is clear that the failure to control these areas leads to unsuccessful teams (Yerkes Dodson, 1968; Feltz, 1988; Martens et al., 1990; Cox, 1998; Weinberg Gould, 2007). 1.2 Research Aims and Questions The main aim of the research is to examine the pattern of pre-match competitive anxiety in elite male rugby union players. With the use of the CSAI-2 and interviews, the effects that anxiety has on sporting performance will be investigated. There are three questions to be answered in this research piece: How does cognitive state-anxiety affect sporting performance? What affects does somatic state-anxiety has on sporting performance? How can self-confidence affect the level of sporting performance? According to LeUnes (1996), developments in the literature written around anxiety have focused on the multidimensional nature of the phenomenon. Therefore, all results will be analysed and compare with the predictions proposed by the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory by Martens et al. (1990) which is explained in the Methodology section. 1.2 Importance of Research The findings from this research will be beneficial to coaches as they will provide a better understanding of how anxiety levels affect performance. The research will also be important to athletes, in this case rugby union players, as they will gain a deeper understanding into the reasons behind their feelings of anxiety and self-confidence. By gaining a further understanding in this area, performance levels can be increased with the aid of appropriate preparation during training and before matches. Coping strategies could also be introduced to the players to enable them to control their levels of anxiety prior to matches. 1.3 Context The research for this research project will take place at a local amateur rugby club. The club was set up in July 1898 and just before the Second World War the land was purchased and the pitches were laid. By 1975 the club had a fully erected club house with squash courts. The club consists of 6 senior teams; Colts, Ladies, Vikings, Rhinos (Veterans), Wanderers and 1st XV. There are also teams for youth boys from U7 through to U17, and U15 and U18 teams for girls. The selected team for research is the 1st XV mens team. Although the research is being carried out in this local rugby club, the results and findings can be applied to any other sports club across the country. The level and gender of the club or team will however make a difference to how the players react to certain situations. 1.4 Outline of the Study This research will be split further into five further chapters: Chapter Two: Literature review in which I will be developing an overview of the field. Chapter Three: Methodology will explain how I set out to investigate my research and why I chose the methods used. Chapter Four: Results will present the findings of the research piece in chart form. Chapter Five: Discussion Analysis explains what I found out during the research project. It will relate them back to my literature review and compare them to the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory. Chapter Six: Conclusion will explain my findings and close up the research project. 2. Literature Review This literature review will be written in four sections. Each one will be looking into the effects of anxiety on performance in sport. Section one will look at the definitions of trait and state anxiety and self confidence. Section two will be looking into the research around anxiety and its effects on performance, both positive and negative. The third section will be investigating the causes of anxiety; fear of failure, parental, peers and coaches influences, social physique anxiety, and location. The final section will be exploring the characteristics of anxiety during performance in sport. Objective and Data Sources This research project provides an insight into the affects of anxiety on the performance of a selected rugby team. Database searches were done using SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO and EBSCOhost in order to find significant literature. The key words rugby, anxiety, performance, coaches, location, parents, and team were entered into the databases to bring up relevant articles. Only appropriate, peer reviewed data was extracted for this review. 2.1 Trait and State Anxiety, and Self-Confidence. Anxiety can be defined as, A state in which the individual experiences feelings of uneasiness (apprehension) and activation of the autonomic nervous system in response to a vague nonspecific threat. (Barry, 2002:p230; Carpenito-Moyet, 2006:p11). Anxiety is viewed as an enduring personality factor or trait referred to as A-trait (Davies, 1989:p70). 2.1.1 Trait Anxiety Trait anxiety is part of the personality, an acquired behavioural tendency or disposition that influences behaviour (Weinberg Gould, 2007:p79). Individuals with a high level of trait anxiety have a tendency to regard certain situations as threatening, and respond to these with an increased level of state anxiety (Spielberger, 1971). For example, two hockey goal keepers are of the same standard yet one has a higher level of trait anxiety and finds pressure of saving the goals too much. This leads to him displaying higher levels of state anxiety. Anxiety is also viewed as a temporary state, A-state which is evoked by particular situations (Davies, 1989:p70). 2.1.2 State Anxiety State anxiety can be defined as an emotional state characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of apprehension and tension, accompanied by or associated with activation or arousal of the autonomic nervous system (Spielberger, 1966:p17). For example, the level of an athletes state anxiety will change during a rugby match. Before the game the player may have a high level of state anxiety, during the game it may lower as they settle into the game, and finally during the last few minutes of a tight game it may rise again. State anxiety can be split further into cognitive state anxiety, and somatic state anxiety (LeUnes Nation, 1996). In support of this proposal that the two aspects of state anxiety can be dealt with as independent constructs, both Burton (1988) and Gould et al. (1987) have proven through research that sporting performance is affected by the type of anxiety being measured. Cognitive anxiety can be defined as the mental component of state anxiety caused by such things as fear of negative social evaluation, fear of failure, and loss of self-esteem (Cox, 1998:p98). Somatic anxiety refers to the physiological and affective elements of the anxiety experience that develop directly from autonomic arousal (Martens et al., 1990:p6). Somatic anxiety is shown in responses such as increase in heart rate, breathlessness, sweaty palms, and muscular tension (Martens et al., 1990; Morris et al, 1981; Cox, 1998). Research by Hanton et al., (2000) examined the cognitive and somatic anxiety levels in 50 rugby players and 50 target rifle shooters. Hanton et al. (2000) concluded that rugby players were more likely to report that somatic anxiety had a positive impact on their sporting performance. However, the target rifle shooters reported that it had a negative impact on their performance. Somatic and cognitive anxiety can be tested using the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) developed by Martens et al. and first presented in 1982. 2.1.3 Self-Confidence Vealey (1986) defined sports confidence as the amount of confidence athletes possess about their ability to be successful in sport. Vealey (2001) suggested that self-confidence can be more traitlike or statelike depending on the time that it is measured. In essence, confidence might be something that an individual feels on a particular day (state self-confidence), or it might be part of their personality (trait self-confidence). Research carried out by Hall et al. (1998), suggests that self-confidence is closely related to perceived ability and is depressed with the onset of competition due to the increase in anxiety. As explained in literature by Horn (2008:p66), self-confidence is rooted in beliefs and expectations. If overall self-confidence is low and the player(s) expect something to go wrong, they are creating a self-fulfilling prophecy (Weinberg Gould, 2007). This means that expecting something to happen actually helps it to happen. For example, if a team thinks that they will lose the upcoming match because they lost last time they stand a greater chance of losing than winning. The expectation of failure leads to actual failure, which lowers self-image and increases expectations for future failure (Weinberg Gould, 2007:p323). 2.2 Anxiety and Performance. As a result of the development of the CSAI-2, the Multidimensional Theory of Anxiety has been recognised in the field of sport psychology (McNally, 2002). The Multidimensional Theory of Anxiety is based on the idea that anxiety is comprised of two distinct parts; cognitive and somatic (as defined in section 2.1). Both of these components have different effects on performance and can be manipulated separately in any occasion (Burton, 1998; Cox, 1998; McNally, 2002). The Multidimensional Anxiety Theory predicts that cognitive state anxiety is negatively related to performance. However, the theory predicts that the somatic state anxiety is related to performance in an inverted U shape which can be seen in Appendix 1 . Certain levels of anxiety can be advantageous for the performers, but only but to a certain level. Beyond this level the anxiety causes performance to decline (Martens et al., 1990; Hanin, 2000; Weinberg Gould, 2007). According to Endler (1978), there are five factors that can be responsible for an increase in state anxiety in an athlete; threat to an individuals ego, threat of personal harm, ambiguity, disruption of routine, and threat of a negative social evaluation. A high level of anxiety is disadvantageous for optimum performance in competitive sport (Davies, 1989:p71). This is demonstrated by the fact that more anxious individuals generally do worse in important events compared to less important events and practise sessions. This is supported by research carried out by Martens et al. (1990), Martin Gill (1991), and Eys et al. (2003). Martens et al. (1990) suggests that somatic anxiety has an Inverted-U shaped relationship with performance, whereas cognitive anxiety has a negative linear relationship with performance as shown in Appendix 2 . Similar results had been found by Parfitt and Hardy (1991). They found that there were both positive and negative effects for somatic anxiety during performance related activities just before an important event or match during the time that cognitive anxiety was at a high level (McNally, 2002). Anxiety can be a huge setback for many athletes, especially those who take part in individual sports, such as tennis singles, and for those who play in exposed positions, such as goalkeepers in hockey (Davies, 1989). Research has proven that there is an optimum level of anxiety for maximum performance. It was also proven that both high and low levels of anxiety are related to poor levels of performance (Yerkes Dodson, 1968; Feltz, 1988; Martens et al., 1990; Cox, 1998). According to research carried out by Martin and Gill (1991), a players level of anxiety varies depending on how important or challenging the match or competition is. More able players will therefore not be so adversely affected by high levels of anxiety, where as less able players will be as they see the match as challenging and good results will seem unrealistic. Sigmund Freud (1962) did a lot of research into anxiety. In 1962 he focused on the anticipatory nature of anxiety. From this research he concluded that some individuals expect to win or fail, and therefore become more or less anxious according to their expectations. An important piece of research into state anxiety among successful and unsuccessful competitors who differ in competitive trait anxiety was carried out by Martens and Gill (1976). From the research they concluded that the individuals who maintained low levels of A-state throughout the competition were highly successful. This supports the research carried out by Martens (1990) and Parfitt and Hardy (1991) with the Inverted-U shaped relationship between anxiety and performance. Anxiety, therefore is a central factor in performance in competitive sport (Davies, 1989:p72). It is exasperating and disheartening for a talented and committed sportsman when their performance crumbles during competition due to over-anxiety. This is avoidable if the individual is suitably prepared emotionally and emphasis is on the learning and enjoyment of the game. However, this could be difficult to enforce with a professional sportsman who may potentially have external rewards undermining intrinsic motivation (Weinburg and Gould, 2007). 2.3 Causes of Anxiety. This section will be looking into the issues surrounding the causes of anxiety in sports performers. These will include fear of failure, parental, peers and coaches influences, and event importance. Relevant literature has been reviewed and presented in the section below. 2.4.1 Fear of Failure For many people, sport is an important arena in which ones ability, motivation, and personality are scrutinized and evaluated by other people (Leary Kowalski, 1995:p122). Whenever individuals step onto the sports field they are at risk of showing themselves in an unflattering perspective. They may worry about displaying signs of being out of shape, unskilled, incompetent and unable to handle pressure to their fans, teammates, coaches and family (Passer, 1983; Davies, 1989; Leary Kowalski, 1995; Jarvis, 2006). Research by Pierce (1980) concluded that youth sport participants worried more about making mistakes and underperforming than getting hurt and what others thought of them. One of the most potent causes of anxiety is the fear of failure (Davies, 1989:p73). This fear of failure would also be connected with the loss of prestige and humiliation. Research by Passer (1983) supports this theory as he found that fear of failure is a major cause of threat in competitive-trait-anxious children. This fear of failure can be evident in superior performers as there is an increased pressure to perform well when playing a less able opponent. Losing to a lower ranked team or player could be humiliating and result in a loss of prestige and reputation (Davies, 1989; Leary Kowalski, 1995). The player may have the ability and skills to win the match, but due to their constant worry of how they are going to perform they end up underperforming (Passer, 1983). However, for professional athletes this adverse affect of anxiety on performance will be less as they have learnt to cope with such situations and are able to deal with them accordingly. An example of a highly skilled player is Roger Federer (aged 27). Federer met the young Spaniard, Rafael Nadal (aged 22) in the Wimbledon finals in 2008. Federer was the current Wimbledon champion and had held the title for 5 consecutive years; this would have been his 6th World Championship title. Federers defeat could have been due to the excessive amount of media coverage before the match adding to the pressure of him winning yet another title against a younger competitor. At the same time, the pressure would have equally been placed on Nadal to knock Federer off the top spot. Federer commented after the game Its not a whole lot of fun, but thats the way it is. I can only congratulate Rafa for a great effort (BBC Sport, 2008).The game was incredibly close; 6-4, 6-4, 6-7(5), 6-7(8), 9-7 (BBC Sport, 2008), and has gone down in history as the longest ever Wimbledon final. 2.3.2 Parental, Peers and Coaches Influences Parents and coaches can sometimes be far too pushy and ambitious and in turn increase the stress and anxiety levels within the athlete. According to Jarvis (1990), it is apparent that both high and low expectations of performance can be linked to levels of anxiety. The over-concern and high levels of anxiety shown by anyone close to the athlete is likely to heighten their anxiety also, and in turn could damage the chances of success. Too much pressure from teachers, coaches and family can add tremendously to competitive anxiety (Jarvis, 1990: p118). Passer (1983) concluded from his research that highly anxious individuals are very worried about performing badly as this will bring about criticism and disapproval from their peers, parents and coaches. However, Smith et al. (1979) developed a coach-training program designed to help coaches create an environment for the athletes to feel comfortable and less anxious in. The Coach Effectiveness Training gives the coaches the skills and ability to create a socially supportive environment through frequent use of positive reinforcement, encouragement, and technical instruction, while discouraging the use of punitive behaviours (Smith et al., 2006:p492). Smith et al. (1995) discovered through research that there were significant reductions in performance-anxiety among children who played for a coach that had experienced the Coach Effectiveness Training. The children who were exposed to trained coaches showed a decrease in levels of anxiety over the season, whereas the other group who were exposed to untrained coaches showed an increase on the Sports Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS) (Smith et al., 2006). A frequent source of anxiety is the presence of spectators; these can be friends, family, coaches or even complete strangers. Sometimes performance is enhanced, sometimes it deteriorates and sometimes there is little discernible difference (Davies, 1989:p83). According to literature the performance of stable and confident players usually improves when an audience is present, whereas that of anxious players tends to decrease (Weinberg Gould, 2007; Jarvis, 2006; Martens et al., 1990). Research also shows that the effect of an audience on superior players is positive, and for the less able player the audience presents them with an increase in anxiety and stress which in turn causes them to underperform. According to work carried out by Haas and Roberts (1975), Martens and Landers (1972) and Green (1983) the perceived role of the observer is an important factor for the athlete or performer. It has been suggested that if the observer occupies an important, judgmental role then this gener ates feelings of anxiety. The researchers found that on the other hand, if the spectators are seen as being positive and supportive, for example a coach, they will be generally welcomed by the performer. 2.3.3 Event Importance. The more important a sporting event is, the more stressful we are likely to find it (Jarvis, 1990: p118). However, it is important to remember that it is the importance of the event to the individual that is counts, not the status of the competition. An event may seem insignificant to most people but may be important to an individual (Weinberg Gould, 2007). An example of this could be that an individual is competing against their old club team; there would be an increased desire to perform well and potentially beat them. Research carried out by Sanderson in 1977 on 64 of the best badminton players in England aged between 18 and 21; found that the perceived importance of the competition was a significant factor leading to A-State reactions (Sanderson, 1981). Marchant et al. (1998) conducted an experiment with pairs of golfers. The golfers were either competing for three new golf balls, or a pair of new golfing shoes. Obviously, the golf shoes made the competition into a high importance one, and therefore the players experienced more anxiety than those competing for the golf balls. An example of a player who was able to cope with the increase in anxiety is Jonny Wilkinson who took a drop goal to win England the 2003 Rugby World Cup in the final play of the game. If Wilkinson had been affected by the anxiety and pressure of the level of competition, he may have missed the goal. 2.4 Anxiety: Performance Characteristics. In sporting competitive situations, the anxious performer tends to become over-aroused, tense, and far too worried to perform to the best of their ability. The increase in muscle tension can interfere with coordination causing the performance levels to decrease (Burton, 1988; Smith et al., 2006; Weinberg Gould, 2007). The feeling on inadequacy and lack of self-confidence hinders the sporting performance (Davies, 1989). For example in a competitive rugby match a player who suffers a high level of anxiety may lack confidence when going in for a tackle. This could result in the player passing him and scoring a try, but most probably resulting in injury as they are not fully committed to the tackle. The highly anxious person is slower to react in the stressful competitive situation than he is in the relatively relaxed conditions of practice (Davies, 1989:p75). During tense, crucial parts of the match the over-anxious player may show unforced errors; for example in rugby they may miss a penalty kick and in tennis a double-fault may be played. Unforced errors may occur during the match; this can include forward passes, a knock-on, or a late tackle. 3. Methodology In order to achieve the objectives of this research project, a variety of appropriate research methods have been chosen, using both primary and secondary data. Before research was collected it was important to establish a research process which acted as a framework throughout the research project. During this chapter the strengths and weaknesses of the potential research method is discussed and only the suitable and most relevant have been selected for this study. 3.1 Paradigm Rationale There are two broad research traditions; qualitative which answers questions such as why and how, and quantitative which answers questions such as what and when ( See appendix page 27 table) (Gratton Jones, 2004). As I am interested in researching a particular phenomenon I mainly carried out quantitative data collection. I measured how anxiety affects performance, both positively and negatively within the mens 1st XV at Reading Rugby Football Club. It was decided to mix quantitative data with qualitative data to make the research more credible and valid. Many researchers such as Nau (1995) and Jayaratne (1993) have suggested that blending qualitative and quantitative methods of research can produce a result highlighting significant findings from each. Henderson et al. (1999) suggests that using anecdotes and narratives to support quantitative data can provide clarity to the findings. Linking the two types of data can give a bigger picture of the issues around the subject. During this research project, quantitative data was collected to provide numerical data from a large sample, whereas the qualitative data collected provides rich data from a smaller sample (Gratton Jones, 2004). 3.2 Research Approach The research question Pattern of pre-match competitive anxiety in elite mate rugby union players includes elements taken from both an inductive and deductive approach to research. When researching around the subject of how anxiety affects performance, a deductive approach appears to be more appropriate to the research project as it was unnecessary for the researcher to come up with a new theory. A large amount of research has already been carried out into the affects of anxiety on sporting performance, evident in the literature review. For this piece of research the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory proposed by Martens et al.,(1990) was used. The theory is based on the idea that anxiety is comprised of two distinct parts; cognitive and somatic. The Multidimensional Anxiety Theory predicts that cognitive state anxiety is negatively related to performance, and that the somatic state anxiety is related to performance in an inverted U suggesting that there is an optimum level of anxiety (Weinberg Gould, 2007; Burton, 1998; Cox, 1998; McNally, 2002). 3.3 Participants For this research into the effects of anxiety on performance, the mens 1st team of the amateur Reading Rugby Football Club was chosen. They were chosen as there is the opportunity to meet with the meet every week. From talking to the players it is apparent that the club has a mixture of professions; students, army personnel, mechanics, and business men. However, they all have one passion, and that is rugby. The ages of the players range from 18 to 38 years. There is a variety of experiences within the team; some players are in their first season of National 3 level rugby, whereas a number are in their fourth of fifth season at this level. Training takes place on a Tuesday and Thursday from 7:30pm until 9:30pm. During this time the players train, have physiotherapy (if it is needed), and they also have a meal together before going home. The amount of time that the team spends together off the pitch is vital for the development of team cohesion. 3.4 Data Collection During this research project, data was collected using both questionnaires and interviews. This section will look at questionnaires and interviews separately explaining the different types of question, and the advantages and disadvantages of both. 3.4.1 The Questionnaire Survey Following the research in Chapter 2, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 has been chosen for this research. The inventory is a sport-specific, self-report that has been proven to be a reliable and valid measure in competitive situations of cognitive and somatic state anxiety and self-confidence. The CSAI-2 consists of a three 9-item subscales that measure cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence (Burton, 1988). Each of the 27 questions are rated on a 4-point Likert scale from not at all to very much so. The questionnaire was administered during the final hour before competition over a period of 14 weeks. The scores collected on each of the three scales provided a reference point from which to examine the rugby players patterns of multidimensional anxiety. 3.4.1.1 Types of Questionnaires According to Gratton and Jones (2004) questionnaires are possibly the most common method for collecting data in sports-related research. A questionnaire is simply a standardised set of questions to gain information from a subject (Gratton Jones 2004: 115). Questionnaires are associated with quantitative research where data is required from a large sample group. In this case the questionnaires measure the anxiety levels of the 1st XV team before matches. There are three types of questionnaire; postal, telephone and face to face questionnaires. Postal questionnaires are given or posted to the participants who then complete them in their own time; they are then posted back to the researcher. Telephone questionnaires are completed by the researcher while talking to the participant over the telephone. Face to face questionnaires are completed with both the participant and researcher in the same location. For this research the most appropriate way to collect data was to hand out self-completion questionnaires that were carried out face to face. Handing out the questionnaires saves postal and telephone costs, and also time. This was the best way for the researcher to collect the data that was needed before summarising it using tables and graphs (Gratton Jones, 2004). 3.4.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires Advantages A well designed questionnaire provides little opportunity for the introduction of bias into the results. However, a badly designed questionnaire can sometimes lead to bias data, and therefore using questionnaires does not automatically mean that there is a reduction in bias (Thomas et al, 2005; Gratton Jones, 2010). The use of a questionnaire enables the participant to remain anonymous. This is advantageous when researching sensitive issues such as violence, drugs and, in this case the personal issue of anxiety. Enabling the participants to remain anonymous may increase the validity of the researchers results. As the CSAI-2 is being used the research has been provided with a well-structured means of collecting quantitative data.